The Human Body

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=90 BGCOLOR="#006699" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="02c285a1erlcgo.png"> <div> <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#FFCC66" FACE="Arial" ><B>Mr. Manning's Life Science Class</B></FONT><B>     |     </B><A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mr. Mannings Life Science Class"><B>home</B></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id28.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Cell Biology">Cell Biology</A>   |   <A HREF="id29.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mitosis">Mitosis</A>   |   <A HREF="id36.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Classification">Classification</A>   |   <A HREF="id34.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Microbes">Microbes</A>   |   <A HREF="id151.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Prostista Kingdom">Prostista Kingdom</A>   |   <A HREF="id62.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Fungi">Fungi</A>   |   <A HREF="id63.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Plants">Plants</A>   |   <A HREF="id91.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</A>   |   <A HREF="id20.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</A>   |   <A HREF="id92.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Genetics">Genetics</A>   |   <A HREF="id180.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Evolution and Natural Selection">Evolution and Natural Selection</A>   |   <B>The Human Body</B>   |   <A HREF="id105.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Ecology">Ecology</A></div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=210 BGCOLOR="#FFCC66" TEXT="#080000" background="02ad2c00dkelyh.png"> <div> <B>Do you know that </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">more than half the bones in the human body are in the hands and feet? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the highest recorded "sneeze speed" is 165 km (102 miles) per hour? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the heart beats about 3 billion times in the average person's lifetime? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">a newborn baby has 350 bones, but a fully-grown adult has only 206? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">blood is a liquid organ? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">everyone is colorblind at birth? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the surface area of the lungs is approximately the same size as a tennis court? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">food will get to your stomach even if you're standing on your head? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">skin is the largest body organ? </B></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700b499330000.png" HEIGHT="12" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the average adult is made up of 100 trillion cells? </B></div> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=390 width="100%" BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <I> <A NAME="the_human_body"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I>The Human Body</I></div> <bR> <div> <I> <img src="HTMLobj-715/aniGif.gif" border="0" align="bottom" width="604" height="80">  </I></div> <div> <I><B>The human body is the most fascinating and fantastic machine in existence. No one understands all of its many mysteries; and no single source can do justice to its many parts.</B></I></div> <bR> <div> <B>For an indepth resource on human anatomy check out the following link.</B></div> <div>  <img src="HTMLobj-712/aniGif.gif" border="0" align="bottom" width="129" height="200">  <FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#BF0000" FACE="Comic Sans MS" ><A HREF="http://www.bartleby.com/107/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.bartleby.com/107/"><B>http://www.bartleby.com/107/</B></A></FONT></div> <bR> <div> <B>Here is an additional site for excellent information on all aspects of human anatomy.</B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html"><B>http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>Elaborate presentations of the various parts and functions of the </B><B>human body</B><B> using Shockwave technology. You can play the build the skeleton game. Try this site!</B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.medtropolis.com/VBody.asp" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.medtropolis.com/VBody.asp"><B>http://www.medtropolis.com/VBody.asp</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>An interactive primer to the </B><B>human</B><B> anatomy with pictures, diagrams, program guides, message boards, and search feature. This is the BBC site, and it's really great!</B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/"><B>http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B> <img src="HTMLobj-713/aniGif.gif" border="0" align="bottom" width="300" height="302">  </B></div> <div> <B>This site was designed to help children learn about how our body works. The information is presented in an easy to read format with colourful diagrams to assist understanding. </B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://users.tpg.com.au/users/amcgann/body/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://users.tpg.com.au/users/amcgann/bo"><B>http://users.tpg.com.au/users/amcgann/body/</B></A><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Once you've been through this site try . . .</B></div> <div> <B> <img src="HTMLobj-718/aniGif.gif" border="0" align="bottom" width="170" height="44">  </B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Human</B> <B>Body</B> Adventure is a virtual cartoon dissection of the <B>human</B> <B>body</B> intended for a middle school-aged audience. This is a really neat site. </div> <div> <A HREF="http://vilenski.org/science/humanbody/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://vilenski.org/science/humanbody/"><B>http://vilenski.org/science/humanbody/</B></A></div> <bR> <div> Human Anatomy</div> <div> Information and Printouts from EnchantedLearning.com</div> <div> <B>Great site!!</B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/titlepage.shtml" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subject"><B>http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/titlepage.shtml</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>The best </B><B>human</B><B> </B><B>anatomy</B><B> Web destinations for families (from the United Feature Syndicate), rated, reviewed and organized by topic. </B><B>...</B><B> </B><B>Human</B><B> </B><B>Anatomy</B><B>. </B><B>...</B><B> </B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.surfnetkids.com/human.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.surfnetkids.com/human.htm"><B>http://www.surfnetkids.com/human.htm</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>The American Medical Association's atlas of the human body is a terrific site to get more information about your body.</B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/7140.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category"><B>http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/7140.html</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>Enjoy a visit to </B><B><U>BodyQuest</U></B><B>, a fun-filled and informative exploration of the human body intended for students age 11 and above. You can tour the human body for an overview of the major body systems, stopping frequently along the way to delve more deeply into each system's individual parts. Students will discover how each body system works and find out how each body part contributes to the functioning of the whole body. You can search for specific information, perform experiments, take a quiz, post or answer questions on a bulletin board, and chat with other BodyQuest users. The site features engaging graphics, highly readable text, and lively music. Learning has never been so easy or so much fun! </B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://library.thinkquest.org/10348/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://library.thinkquest.org/10348/"><B>http://library.thinkquest.org/10348/</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B> <img src="HTMLobj-721/aniGif.gif" border="0" align="bottom" width="232" height="182">  </B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Comic Sans MS" ><B>Each topic in the inner exploration of Human Anatomy site has animations, 100’s of graphics, and thousands of descriptive links. </B></FONT></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www.innerbody.com/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.innerbody.com/"><B>http://www.innerbody.com/</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>From the moment it begins beating until the moment it stops, the human heart works tirelessly. In an average lifetime, the heart beats more than two and a half billion times, without ever pausing to rest. Like a pumping machine, the heart provides the power needed for life. </B></div> <div> <A HREF="http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/heart.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/heart.html"><B>http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/heart.html</B></A></div> <bR> <div> To view a complete outline of the topic "Human Reproduction" click on the following link.</div> <div> <A HREF="id138.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Human Reproduction"><B>Human Reproduction</B></A></div> <bR> <div> To view a complete outline on "Human Physiology" click on the following link.</div> <div> <A HREF="id145.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Further Human Physiology"><B>Further Human Physiology</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B> <A NAME="blood_groups_blood_typing_and_blood_transfusions"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B><B>Blood Groups, Blood Typing and Blood Transfusions</B></div> <div> <B>The discovery of blood groups</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Be sure to play the "</B><A HREF="#play_the_blood_typing_game_" TITLE="The Human Body"><B>Blood Typing Game</B></A><B>" by clicking on this link.</B></div> <div> <B>            </B></div> <div> <B>Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.</B><B><IMG SRC="66191250.gif" border=0 width="145" height="293" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic reactions. This can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood types and thus paved the way for blood transfusions to be carried out safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>What is blood made up of?</B></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="663a0e40.gif" border=0 width="160" height="228" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> </B><B>An adult human has about 4–6 liters of blood circulating in the body. Among other things, blood transports oxygen to various parts of the body.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Blood consists of several types of cells floating around in a fluid called plasma.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, the body tissues.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>The white blood cells fight infection.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>The platelets help the blood to clot, if you get a wound for example.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>The plasma contains salts and various kinds of proteins.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B> </B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66494c50.gif" border=0 width="148" height="197" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">What are the different blood groups?</B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B>The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma. Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>There are more than 20 genetically determined blood group systems known today, but the AB0 and Rh systems are the most important ones used for blood transfusions. Not all blood groups are compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is dangerous for individuals.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Nobel Laureate Karl Landsteiner was involved in the discovery of both the AB0 and Rh blood groups.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><U>AB0 blood grouping system</U></B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B>According to the AB0 blood typing system there are four different kinds of blood types: A, B, AB or 0 (null).</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66562480.gif" border=0 width="98" height="72" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Blood group A</B></div> <div> <B>If you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.</B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66762480.gif" border=0 width="98" height="72" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Blood group B</B></div> <div> <B>If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66862480.gif" border=0 width="98" height="72" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Blood group AB</B></div> <div> <B>If you belong to the blood group AB, you have both A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66962480.gif" border=0 width="98" height="72" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Blood group 0</B></div> <div> <B>If you belong to the blood group 0 (null), you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66a62490.gif" border=0 width="98" height="73" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Rh factor blood grouping system</B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66b62490.gif" border=0 width="98" height="73" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood cell's surface. This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who haven't are called Rh-. A person with Rh- blood does not have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma (as one can have A or B antibodies, for instance). But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the production of Rh antibodies. A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a person with Rh- blood without any problems.</B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="66cf29b0.gif" border=0 width="242" height="155" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <div> <B> </B></div> <div> <B>Blood group notation</B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B>According to above blood grouping systems, you can belong to either of following 8 blood groups:</B></div> <div> <B>             </B></div> <div> <B> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="317" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 21 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>A Rh+</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B> B Rh+</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <B>    AB Rh+</B></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B>   0 Rh+</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 21 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>A Rh-</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B> B Rh-</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B> AB Rh-</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B>0 Rh-</B></div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Do you know which blood group you belong to?</B></div> <div> <B>                 </B></div> <div> <B>Blood typing – how do you find out to which blood group someone belongs?</B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B>A person with A+ blood receives B+ blood. The B antibodies (yellow) in the A+ blood attack the foreign red blood cells by binding to them. The B antibodies in the A+ blood bind the antigens in the B+ blood and agglutination occurs. This is dangerous because the agglutinated red blood cells break after a while and their contents leak out and become toxic.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B> </B></div> <div> <B>            </B></div> <bR> <div> <B>1.</B></div> <div> <B>You mix the blood with three different reagents including either of the three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>2.</B></div> <div> <B>Then you take a look at what has happened. In which mixtures has agglutination occurred? The agglutination indicates that the blood has reacted with a certain antibody and therefore is not compatible with blood containing that kind of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate, it indicates that the blood does not have the antigens binding the special antibody in the reagent.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>3.</B></div> <div> <B>If you know which antigens are in the person's blood, it's easy to figure out which blood group he or she belongs to!</B></div> <div> <B> <a href="HTMLobj-1648/Agglutination_Animation.avi" target="_blank"><u>Agglutination Animation</u></a>  Click on the Agglutination Animation link to view a video.</B></div> <div> <B>A person with A+ blood receives B+ blood. The B antibodies (yellow) in the A+ blood attack the foreign red blood cells by binding to them. The B antibodies in the A+ blood bind the antigens in the B+ blood and agglutination occurs. This is dangerous because the agglutinated red blood cells break after a while and their contents leak out and become toxic. </B></div> <bR> <div> <B>What is happening when the blood clumps or agglutinates?</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>For a blood transfusion to be successful, AB0 and Rh blood groups must be compatible between the donor blood and the patient blood. If they are not, the red blood cells from the donated blood will clump or agglutinate. The agglutinated red cells can clog blood vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body. The agglutinated red blood cells also crack and its contents leak out in the body. The red blood cells contain hemoglobin which becomes toxic when outside the cell. This can have fatal consequences for the patient.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>The A antigen and the A antibodies can bind to each other in the same way that the B antigens can bind to the B antibodies. This is what would happen if, for instance, a B blood person receives blood from an A blood person. The red blood cells will be linked together, like bunches of grapes, by the antibodies. As mentioned earlier, this clumping could lead to death.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B> Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from whom?</B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="67263650.gif" border=0 width="99" height="101" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> People with blood group 0 are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB are called "universal receivers."</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Of course you can always give A blood to persons with blood group A, B blood to a person with blood group B and so on. But in some cases you can receive blood with another type of blood group, or donate blood to a person with another kind of blood group.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>The transfusion will work if a person who is going to receive blood has a blood group that doesn't have any antibodies against the donor blood's antigens. But if a person who is going to receive blood has antibodies matching the donor blood's antigens, the red blood cells in the donated blood will clump.</B></div> <bR> <div> <B> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="437" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 39 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>Blood Group</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <B>Antigens</B></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <B>Antibodies</B></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="84"><div> <B>Can give blood to</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="89"><div> <B>Can receive blood from</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 21 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>AB</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B>A and B</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <B>None</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="84"><div> <B>AB</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <B>AB, A, B, 0</B></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 21 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>A</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B>A</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <B>B</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="84"><div> <B>A and AB</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="89"><div> <B>A and 0</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 21 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>B</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B>B</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <B>A</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="84"><div> <B>B and AB</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="89"><div> <B>B and 0</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 21 WIDTH="71"><div> <B>0</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="71"><div> <B>None</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <B>A and B</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <B>AB, A, B, 0</B></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="89"><div> <B>0</B></div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="676c86e0.gif" border=0 width="200" height="110" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Blood Typing</B></div> <div> <B>In this game you have to blood type each patient and give them a blood transfusion. Are you able to do that? If not, maybe you should read the introduction to blood typing before you start, otherwise you will put the patients' lives in danger! Click on the following link to begin the review.</B></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="#blood_groups_blood_typing_and_blood_transfusions" TITLE="The Human Body"><B>Introduction: Blood Groups, Blood Typing and Blood Transfusions</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B> <A NAME="play_the_blood_typing_game_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B><B>Play the Blood Typing Game.  Click on the following link to begin the game:</B><A HREF="http://nobelprize.org/medicine/educational/landsteiner/index.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://nobelprize.org/medicine/education"><B>Blood Typing Game</B></A></div> <bR> <div> <B>        </B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="67332470.jpg" border=0 width="50" height="71" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The discovery of the AB0 blood groups and Nobel Laureate Karl Landsteiner</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="67444440.jpg" border=0 width="68" height="68" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930</B></div> <div> <B>"for his discovery of human blood groups"</B></div> <div> <B>Austria</B></div> <div> <B>Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research</B></div> <div> <B>New York, NY, USA</B></div> <div> <B>b. 1868</B></div> <div> <B>d. 1943</B></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B>The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Presentation Speech by Professor G. Hedrén, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine of the Royal Caroline Institute, on December 10, 1930</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Your Majesty, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen.</B></div> <bR> <div> Thirty years ago, in 1900, in the course of his serological studies Landsteiner observed that when, under normal physiological conditions, blood serum of a human was added to normal blood of another human the red corpuscles in some cases coalesced into larger or smaller clusters. This observation of Landsteiner was the starting-point of his discovery of the human blood groups. In the following year, i.e. 1901, Landsteiner published his discovery that in man, blood types could be classified into three groups according to their different agglutinating properties. These agglutinating properties were identified more closely by two specific blood-cell structures, which can occur either singly or simultaneously in the same individual. A year later von Decastello and Sturli showed that there was yet another blood group. The number of blood groups in man is therefore four.</div> <bR> <div> Landsteiner's discovery of the blood groups was immediately confirmed but it was a long time before anyone began to realize the great importance of the discovery. The first incentive to pay greater attention to this discovery was provided by von Dungern and Hirszfeld when in 1910 they published their investigations into the hereditary transmission of blood groups. Thereafter the blood groups became the subject of exhaustive studies, on a scale increasing year by year, in more or less all civilized countries. In order to avoid, in the publication of research on this subject, detailed descriptions which would otherwise be necessary - of the four blood groups and their appropriate cell structures, certain short designations for the blood groups and corresponding specific cell structures have been introduced. Thus, one of the two specific cell structures, characterizing the agglutinating properties of human blood is designated by the letter A and another by B, and accordingly we speak of «blood group A» and «blood group B». These two cell structures can also occur simultaneously in the same individual, and this structure as well as the corresponding blood group is described as AB. The fourth blood-cell structure and the corresponding blood group is known as O, which is intended to indicate that people belonging to this group lack the specific blood characteristics typical of each of the other blood groups. Landsteiner had shown that under normal physiological conditions the blood serum will not agglutinate the erythrocytes of the same individual or those of other individuals with the same structure. Thus, the blood serum of people whose erythrocytes have group structure A will not agglutinate erythrocytes of this structure but it will agglutinate those of group structure B, and where the erythrocytes have group structure B the corresponding serum does not agglutinate these erythrocytes but it does agglutinate those with group structure A. Blood serum of persons whose erythrocytes have structures A as well as B, i.e. who have structure AB, does not agglutinate erythrocytes having structures A, B, or AB. Blood serum of persons belonging to blood group O agglutinates erythrocytes of persons belonging to any of the groups A, B, or AB, but erythrocytes of persons belonging to blood group O are not agglutinated by normal human blood serum. These facts constitute the actual basic principles of Landsteiner's discovery of the blood groups of mankind.</div> <bR> <div> When the scientific importance of the discovery of the blood groups had been recognized - thanks to the investigations by von Dungern end Hirszfeld - research in connection with the blood groups was directed first to studies of the hereditary transmission of blood groups and also of the relative occurrence of the individual blood group in different countries and among different peoples and races. The group characteristics are handed down in accordance with Mendel's laws. The characteristics of blood groups A, B, and AB are dominant, and opposing these dominant characteristics are the recessive ones which characterize blood group O. An individual cannot belong to blood group A, B, or AB, unless the specific characteristics of these groups are present in the parents, whereas the recessive characteristics of blood group O can occur if the parents belong to any one of the four groups. If both parents belong to group O, then the children never have the characteristics of A, B, or AB. The children must then likewise belong to blood group O. If one of the parents belongs to group A and the other to group B, then the child may belong to group A or B or it may possess both characteristics and therefore belong to group AB. If one of the parents belongs to group AB and the other to group O, then in accordance with Mendel's law of segregation the AB characteristic can be segregated and the components can occur as separate characteristics in the children. If a child has the A-group structure (either A or AB), then the A-group characteristic must be present in at least one of the parents, i.e. one of them must belong to group A or AB. If the child belongs to group AB, then one of the parents must belong to group A and the other to group B, or one of the parents must belong to group AB and the other to group A or B, or else both parents must belong to group AB. Application of the discovery of blood groups in questions relating to the establishing of paternity is based on these principles governing the hereditary transmission of blood groups.</div> <bR> <div> The four blood groups have been demonstrated in the populations of all countries where tests have been made. These cover the greater part of the world. It is clearly a constant physiological characteristic of man that every individual belongs to a particular blood group. However, the percentage distribution of the four blood groups varies within different populations and races. In the population of Europe, for instance, a larger proportion of individuals belongs to group A than in other parts of the Old World, and in the northern and western parts of Europe a larger proportion of individuals belongs to blood group A than in the southern and eastern parts. The varying frequency of the individual blood groups in different races points to essential constitutional differences. Here Landsteiner's discovery opened up new fields for research on the determination of the racial purity of a people. Blood group determinations have shown that if an alien race is present within a population this race retains its specific blood group characteristics, even if it has lived away from its main and original homeland for centuries. In the field of genetics the discovery of the blood groups has also proved to be of importance from the point of view of methodology in the study of the hereditary transmission of other characteristics. Landsteiner's discovery of the blood groups also prompted research on the question - important for the study of constitution - whether other body cells in addition to erythrocytes, and in particular the germinal cells, can be differentiated according to specific groups.</div> <bR> <div> However, the discovery of the blood groups has also brought with it important scientific advances in the purely practical field - first and foremost in connection with blood-transfusion therapy, identification of blood, and establishing of paternity.</div> <bR> <div> The transfer of blood from one person to another for therapeutic purposes began to be practised on a considerable scale during the 17th century. It was found, however, that such blood transfusion involved serious risks and not infrequently resulted in the death of the patient. Therapeutic application of the blood transfusion had therefore been almost entirely given up by the time of Landsteiner's discovery. As a result of the discovery of the blood groups it was now possible, at least in the majority of cases, to explain the cause of the dangers linked with this therapeutic measure as previous experience had shown, and at the same time to avoid them. A person from whom blood is taken must in fact belong to the same blood group as the patient. Thanks to Landsteiner's discovery of the blood groups, blood transfusions have come back into use and have saved a great many lives.</div> <bR> <div> Already at the time of publishing his discovery of the blood groups in 1901, Landsteiner pointed out that the blood-group reaction could be used for investigating the origin of a blood sample, for instance of a blood stain. However, it is not possible to prove by determining the blood group that a blood sample comes from a particular individual, but it is possible to prove that it is not from a particular individual. If, for instance, the blood of a blood stain is from an individual belonging to blood group A, then it cannot be from an individual who is found to belong to group B, but a blood-group determination will not tell us from which person of blood group A the blood came.</div> <bR> <div> The establishing of paternity for legal purposes has in all ages presented the legislator with insurmountable difficulties owing to the fact that paternity cannot be proved objectively. In this sphere, therefore, the legislator has had to content himself with possibilities or, at best, greater or lesser probabilities. In view of this situation with regard to proof in cases of disputed paternity it is only natural that the possibility of using the determination of blood group in such cases should have aroused general interest, from both the theoretical and the practical point of view. The use of blood-group determination in paternity actions also constitutes a significant advance in this field, even though the proof is of a negative character. A blood-group determination can, in fact, never establish paternity, but can exclude the possibility of it. However, a blood-group determination does not give results suitable for use as evidence under all circumstances. If the child in question belongs to blood group O, then a determination of the group gives no proof, because the recessive blood group in the child provides no basis for any conclusions regarding the parents, who in this case can belong to any one of the four blood groups. Only in those cases where the child belongs to a dominant blood group, i.e. A, B, or AB, and the specific blood structure of the group is not present in the mother, are the results of any value. A group structure which is present in the child but absent in the mother must have been inherited by the child from its father. If the man who is claimed to be the father belongs to a blood group different from that of the child in question, then the child cannot have inherited its blood-group characteristic from this man, and the possibility of his paternity must therefore be ruled out.</div> <bR> <div> Landsteiner's discovery of the blood groups - as will be clear from what has been said - has opened up new avenues for research in several branches of science and has brought with it important advances in the purely practical field. However, it is only recently that the scientific importance of Landsteiner's discovery has been fully realized. In view of all the circumstances outlined above, the Staff of Professors of the Caroline Institute has decided to award the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, 1930, to Professor Karl Landsteiner for his discovery of the human blood groups.</div> <bR> <div>  </div> <bR> <div> Professor Karl Landsteiner. Proffering you its felicitations to the discovery of the human blood groups, which discovery has been of such great importance for many branches of medical science, the Royal Caroline Medical Institute now invites you to receive from the hands of His Majesty the King the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.</div> <bR> <div> From Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1922-1941, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1965 </div> <div> <B>     </B></div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B>     </B></div> <bR> <div> <B>     </B></div> <bR> <div> <B>     </B></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B> </B></div> <div> <B>      </B></div> <div> <B>              </B></div> <div> <B>     </B></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Play the Blood Typing game</B></div> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>