Further Human Physiology

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=90 BGCOLOR="#006699" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="02c285a1erlcgo.png"> <div> <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#FFCC66" FACE="Arial" ><B>Mr. Manning's Life Science Class</B></FONT><B>     |     </B><A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mr. Mannings Life Science Class"><B>home</B></A></div> <div>                                                   </div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=210 BGCOLOR="#FFCC66" TEXT="#080000" background="02ad2c00dkelyh.png"> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#further_human_physiology" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Further Human Physiology</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#homeostasis" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Homeostasis</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#definition_of__job_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Definition of “Job”</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#negative_feedback" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Negative Feedback</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#body_temp_control" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Body Temp Control</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#control_of_water_potential" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Control of Water Potential</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#blood_glucose_concentration_control" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Blood Glucose Concentration Control</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#digestion" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Digestion</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#digestive_juices" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Digestive Juices</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#contents" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Contents</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#membrane_bound_enzymes" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Membrane-bound Enzymes</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#structural_features" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Structural Features</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#exocrine_glands" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Exocrine Glands</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#secretion" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Secretion</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#starch" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Starch</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#alimentary_canal" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Alimentary Canal</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#pepsin___trypsin" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Pepsin & Trypsin</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#endopeptidase_and_exopeptidase" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Endopeptidase and Exopeptidase</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#lipid_digestion" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Lipid Digestion</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#absorption_of_digested_food" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Absorption of Digested Food</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#strucutural_features" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Strucutural Features</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#material_absorbed" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Material Absorbed</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#notes" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Notes</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#the_functions_of_the_liver" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">The Functions of the Liver</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#circulation_of_blood" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Circulation of Blood</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#liver" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Liver</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#storage" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Storage</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#bile_secretion" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Bile Secretion</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#erythrocytehemoglobin_breakdown" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Erythrocytehemoglobin breakdown</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#synthesis_of_plasma" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Synthesis of Plasma</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#transport" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Transport</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#cardiac_cycle" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Cardiac Cycle</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#volume_changes_during_cardiac_cycle" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Volume Changes During Cardiac Cycle</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#heart_beat_mechanisms" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Heart Beat Mechanisms</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#atherosclerosis" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Atherosclerosis</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#risk_factors_of_coronary_heart_disease" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Risk Factors of Coronary Heart Disease</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#tissue_fluid___lymph_formed_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Tissue Fluid & Lymph Formed…</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#transport_functions_of_lymph_system" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Transport Functions of Lymph System</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#gas_exchange" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Gas Exchange</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#partial_pressure" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Partial Pressure</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#dissociation_curves" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Dissociation Curves</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#myoglobin" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Myoglobin</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#fetal_hemoglobin" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Fetal Hemoglobin</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#carriage_of_carbon_dioxide" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Carriage of Carbon Dioxide</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#bohr_shift" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Bohr Shift</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#ventilation_mechanism" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Ventilation Mechanism</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#lung_cancer___asthma_and_effects_on_gas" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Lung Cancer & Asthma and Effects on Gas</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#lung_cancer" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Lung Cancer</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#asthma" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Asthma</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#mouth_to_mouth_resuscitation" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#problem_of_gas_exchange_at_high" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Problem of Gas Exchange at High</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id145_m.htm#further_human_physiology" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Further Human Physiology">Further Human Physiology</A></div> <bR> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=390 width="100%" BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <I>Further Human Physiology</I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="further_human_physiology"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Further Human Physiology</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="homeostasis"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Homeostasis</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="definition_of__job_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Definition of “Job”</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">involves maintaining internal enviro at constant or close to constant levels </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">includes regulation of: blood pH, water potential, O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> & CO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> concentrations, blood glucose, body temp </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="negative_feedback"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Negative Feedback</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">monitors levels of variables, corrects changes through negative feedback </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">regulation of body temp is example </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="body_temp_control"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Body Temp Control</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">sweat glands secrete sweat into ducts that lead to skin surface, evaporates and heat is released </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">hairs block layer of air (insulator), raising of hair increases layer, reduces heat loss </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">skin arterioles regulate amount of blood to skin, determines skin temp and heat loss </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">shivering requires muscle contractions, gives off heat as a result </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">thyroxine (produced/secreted by thyroid) increases metabolic rate, thus heat rises </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="control_of_water_potential"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Control of Water Potential</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">water potential: measure of tendency of water to pass between regions </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">kidneys responsible for this; Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH) controls how much water is reabsorbed into blood </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">produced by hypothalimus, secreted from posterior pituitary gland </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">hypo contains “osmoreceptors” that detect change in blood solute level, nerve impulses sent to pituitary to release or inhibit ADH </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="blood_glucose_concentration_control"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Blood Glucose Concentration Control</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">a & b cells in pancreas have receptors that monitor level; if above 100 mg, insulin produced by b cells; if too low, a cells produce glucagon </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">increase in insulin leads to increase use and storage of glucose </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">increase in glucagon leads to breakdown of glycogen to glucose </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="digestion"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Digestion</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="digestive_juices"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Digestive Juices</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">digestive juices are secreted into the alimentary canals by salivary glands, stomach walls, pancreas and wall of small intestine </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="contents"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Contents</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">saliva: mucin (protects soft-lining of mouth, lubricates food); buffer (neutralize acids to help prevent tooth decay); anitbacterial agents (kill bacteria); amylase (hydrolyzes starch and glycogen) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">gastric juices: hydrochloric acid (breaks matrix that binds cells, kills bacteria, pH 2); pepsin (hydrolyzes proteins, incomplete digestion) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pancreatic juices: hydrolytic enzymes; alkaline solution (rich in bicarbonate); pancreatic amylase (maltase) </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="membrane_bound_enzymes"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Membrane-bound Enzymes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">membrane-bound enzymes (entropephalase) triggers activation of zymogens, inactive forms of pancreatic enzymes; once zymmogens have been triggered, become active and begin to digest certain molecules (small polypeptides) </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="structural_features"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Structural Features</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">examples of exocrine glands are sweat glands and glands that produce digestive enzymes; have internal secretion meaning don’t secrete product to blood; mucus cells secrete mucus to protect stomach; chief cells secrete pepsinogen; pariebal cells secrete hydrochloric acid to activate pepsinogen </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="exocrine_glands"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Exocrine Glands</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">secretory cells of gland produce product and secrete it (into acinus or blood) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">acini collect it, pass it to duct which lead to lumen or out of body </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="secretion"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Secretion</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">secretion is under nervous and hormonal control; triggered by nervous system by smell or taste of food; pepsinogen secretion stimulated by presence of gastrin released from pyloric section of stomach when food enters it </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="starch"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Starch</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">amylase breaks down starch in mouth, food passed to stomach where protein digestion takes place; in duodenum, past stomach on way to small intestine, remainder of starch broken down to maltose, maltase breaks it into glucose, absorbed by epithelial cells of villi in small intestine, pased to bloodstream and to liver </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="alimentary_canal"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Alimentary Canal</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">cellulose is polysaccharide, doesn’t dissolve in water, first problem in digestion </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">cellulose made from beta glucose, can’t be digested by amylase </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">mammals don’t possess enzyme to digest cellulose </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="pepsin___trypsin"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Pepsin & Trypsin</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">both are proteases </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">if produced in active form, would digest cell that made them </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">produce as inactive precursors: pepsinogen and trypsinogen </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">activated by presence of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enterokinase respectively </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="endopeptidase_and_exopeptidase"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Endopeptidase and Exopeptidase</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">endopeptidases: hydrolyse peptide bonds between amino acids but not ends, responsible for first stage of digestion (pepsin and trypsin) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">exopeptidases: hydrolyse terminal peptide bonds; responsible for final stages of protein digestion (carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase) </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="lipid_digestion"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Lipid Digestion</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">lipids tough to digest because in hydrophilic enviro; lipase is water soluble but only has active site for hydrophobic lipids to bind to and can only work on surface of lipis sphere, thus very slow </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">bile emulsifies fat (breaks it into smaller balls), hydrophobic end binds to lipid, hydrophilic end interacts with water, increase surface area and speed that lipase can digest lipid </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="absorption_of_digested_food"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Absorption of Digested Food</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="strucutural_features"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Strucutural Features</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">have microvilli in lumen to increase SA; mitochondria provide energy for active transport of nutrients; vesicles for endocytosis of food; tight junctions/desmosomes maintain integrity of cell </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="material_absorbed"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Material Absorbed</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">that which isn’t absorbed in intestine is egested: cellulose, lignin, bile pigments, bacteria and intestinal cells </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="notes"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Notes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">small intestine maximizes SA by having long skinny tube, get folds in lining, then get villi, then microvilli; all facilitate absorption </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">5<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >th</FONT> way to max absorption is it goes to bloodstream so maxes it through capillaries (about 1 red blood cell thick) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">length and fold of max SA, villi/microvilli approx 300 square metres </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">2 types of absorption: passive (fructose, water) and active (through active transport); have cotransport which is own thing eg. ion exchanges </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">absorption not going to blood stream is fat; broken down to glycerol and fatty acids; into lacteal and lymph, recombined, surrounded by protein, part hydrophobic, part hydrophilic </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">what’s not absorbed goes to large intestine known as colon </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">large intestine: absorption of water here, inorganic nutrients (primary absorber of water); e. coli, gas, amino acids, and vitamin (K) production </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">rectum: storage and egestion; feces consists of undigested matter, fibre, bacteria (60% by mass), dead mucosal cells (stomach, small intestine and large intestine mucus layers) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">cellulose, bile pigments, water; bile that’s left over after absorption accounts for brown colour of human waste; fats and carbohydrates not immediately used goes to liver </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="the_functions_of_the_liver"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>The Functions of the Liver</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="circulation_of_blood"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Circulation of Blood</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">carbohydrate metabolism; protein metabolism; lipid metabolsim; vitamin and mineral storage; formation and storage of erythrocytes; haemoglobin breakdown; bile production; hormone production/breakdown; detoxification; overall function is to maintain homeostasis of nutrients and molecules in body; </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">bile 98% water and 2% salts, pigments, cholesterol; function is to emulsify fats </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">functional part called acinus, contains branches of 3 bloodvessels, bile ductule and hepatocytes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">blood comes in from hepatic arteriole and portal venule through sinusoids to hepatic venule </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">sinusoids: dilated, large, irregular lumen; spaces between lining endothelial cells facilitate exchanges; not continuous membrane material but forms hooplike rings </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">kuppfer cells: line sinusoids; ingest foreign particles, involved in breakdown of erythrocytes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">bile produced by hepatocytes and movie in opposite direction of blood to bile ductules </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="liver"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Liver</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">liver regulates level of nutrients in blood; needed because rate that nutrients are used isn’t constant, supply depends on how recently meals ingested; too high levels of nutirents are no good </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">tores excess glucose and releases it into blood when blood glucose level drops </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">glucose stored as glycogen, glucagon stimulates breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">proteins broken down by proteases and amino acids used to build new ones </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="storage"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Storage</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">carbohydrate storage: intake of them creates fluctutations in blood glucose level in hepatic portal vein, level of glucose in blood elsewhere is the same </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">glucose metabolism: glycogenesis (for storing glucose); glycogenolysis (for breaking down glycogen and mobilising glucose); gluconeogenesis (glucose produced from amino acids and glycerol in times of hypoglycaemia) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">storage of iron: iron carefully stored after haemoglobin broken down; difficult to absorb; will be used to create new haemoglobin, but until then it’s stored as ferritin </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">vitamin a and d storage: capable of storing water soluble vitamins, but main ones are fat soluble like these </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="bile_secretion"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Bile Secretion</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">bile secretion: yellow/green fluid made by liver, contains water, bile salts, bile pigments, inorganic salts and cholesterol; prodcued in hepatocytes through bile canaliculi to bile duct, empties into gall bladder; stored and concentrated in here </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">when chyme interacts with duodenum, secretes CCK, promoting release of bile, travels through bile duct to pancreatic duct before going to duodenum </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">too little bile salts raises concentration of cholesterol and causes gall stones </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">bile pigments produced from breakdown of haemoglobin </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="erythrocytehemoglobin_breakdown"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Erythrocyte/hemoglobin breakdown</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">breakdown of erythrocytes is a function, broken down by phagocytosis in Kupfer cells, spleen and bone marrow; hemoglobin packed within is released and broken down to heam and globin </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">haem: iron containing prosthetic group; iron stored in liver, rest becomes biliverdin (green bile) which become bilirubin (yellow bile) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">globin: protein broken down to constituent amino acids; used in creation of other proteins </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="synthesis_of_plasma"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Synthesis of Plasma</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">involved in production of plasma proteins </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">extremely important constituent of blood plasma; most common is albumin (transports molecules like calcium, amino acids and hormones); also gamma gobulins that are anitbodies </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">concentration of proteins determines water distribution in blood and intercellular fluid </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">small change in # of dissolved particles can change rate of movement of water </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="transport"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Transport</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="cardiac_cycle"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Cardiac Cycle</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">one heartbeat is one cardiac cycle </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">blood enters atria, bicuspid and tricuspid valves open when atrial pressure > vent pressure </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">2 atria contract simultaneously (atrial systole), blood goes to vents </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">vents contract (vent systole), increases pressure in vents, closes tricuspid and bicuspid valves, opens semis, pushes blood to aorta & pulmonary artery, atria diastole </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">vents diastole, some blood in aorta & pul vein tries to flow back, closes semis </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">“lub” sound made by bicuspid and tricuspid valves closing; “dub” sound made by semis closing in arteries (vent systole = lub, vent diastole = dub) </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="volume_changes_during_cardiac_cycle"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Volume Changes During Cardiac Cycle</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">volume changes as heart goes through cycle </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">volume & pressure increases in atria when fills up w/blood; when systole occurs, volume decreases, pressure increases, then when diastole occurs, volume increases, pressure decreases </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">left vent fills quickly & systole starts, pressure increases about 16 kPa in 0.1 seconds, pressure is high, volume decreases almost to 0%; during diastole, vent fills up w/blood, volume increases, pressure remains low until atrial systole forces blood to vent </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">considerable differences in speed of blood flow throughout body, fastest in aorta, slowest in capillaries </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pressure in blood vessels varies by type, aorta highest, vena cava lowest </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="heart_beat_mechanisms"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Heart Beat Mechanisms</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">contractions of cardiac muscles starts from SA node, made of special muscle cells </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">releases impulse at regular intervals, spread across wall of atria, simultaneous contractions </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">impulse spreads to AV node, connected to bundle of cardiac fibers (His) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">impulse travels to apex of heart, spreads up through Purkinje tissue; causes vent contractions to start at apex and push up to arteries </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">brain & some hormones can influence autonomousness of heart, impulses from sympathetic system increases heart rate; impulses from parasympathetic region decrease cardiac frequency </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">adrenaline increases heart rate </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">can replace SA node w/pacemaker </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="atherosclerosis"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Atherosclerosis</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">deposition of lipids on inner surface of arteries </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">hinders blood flow, causes clots; lead to blockage of coronary artery & heart attack </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="risk_factors_of_coronary_heart_disease"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Risk Factors of Coronary Heart Disease</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">genetic factors </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">old age </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">gender (males > risk) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">smoking </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">obesity </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">diet (saturated fats and cholesterol) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">lack of exercise </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="tissue_fluid___lymph_formed_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Tissue Fluid & Lymph Formed…</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">when blood gets to arteriole end of capillary bed, leaves to become tissue fluid </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">composition very much like plasma, but larger molecules in blood (proteins) can’t pass through, number of leukocytes is variable </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">blood remaining is more concentrated, leads to process of osmosis of tissue fluid back to blood vessels </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">tissue fluid now has CO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> and other wastes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">whatever tissue fluid doesn’t come back to blood vessels goes to lymph system </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="transport_functions_of_lymph_system"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Transport Functions of Lymph System</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">system of blind ending tubes, collects surplus fluid (called lymph) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">vessels drain to circ system in subclavian vein </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">composition of lymph similar to tissue fluid (no proteins) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">3 major functions </div> <div> removes surplus fluid from tissues </div> <div> transports lipids absorbed in small intestine </div> <div> plays role in defense </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="gas_exchange"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Gas Exchange</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="partial_pressure"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Partial Pressure</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pressure exerted by each component in mixture </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pressure of gas in mixture is the same as if alone in same volume at same temp </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="dissociation_curves"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Dissociation Curves</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> that enters lungs binds w/hemoglobin in blood cells </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">amount of saturation of hemoglobin depends on concentration of O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> in air </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">first argument expressed as value between 0 (no binding) and 1 (complete binding); latter part noted as pO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT>, partial pressure of O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> in air </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">generally an S-shaped curve, plateaus near 1 for saturation </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> depends on concentration of O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> in air & air pressure; if concentration decreases, so does pO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT>, same w/air pressure decrease </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">body compensates in time by increasing number of blood cells </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="myoglobin"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Myoglobin</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">hemoglobin carries O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> to muscles, then taken over by myoglobin; thus myoglobin has higher affinity for O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT>, but still is able to release it when muscles demand it </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">thus, hemoglobin curve is S-shaped, but myoglobin curve goes straight up like “root-x” curve </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="fetal_hemoglobin"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Fetal Hemoglobin</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">hemoglobin of fetus must be able to “out-compete” maternal hemoglobin for O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">affinity for O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> in fetal hemoglobin slightly higher than maternal, thus, curves both S-shaped, but fetal hemoglobin rises earlier </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="carriage_of_carbon_dioxide"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Carriage of Carbon Dioxide</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> transported from lungs to tissue by hemoglobin, then becomes oxyhemoglobin </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">CO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> carried from tissues to lungs differently </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">some binds to hemoglobin, becomes carbamino-hemoglobin </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">some dissolved in plasma </div> <div> <FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">most enters blood cell, changes it to HCO</FONT>3-<FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >and goes to plasma </FONT></div> <div> <FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">in blood cell, carbonic anhydrase turns it to H</FONT>2<FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >CO</FONT>3<FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >, then splits to H</FONT>+<FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" > and HCO</FONT>3-<FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" > </FONT></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">released H<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >+</FONT> breaks up oxyhemoglobin, O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> absorbed by tissues </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">hemoglobin acts as buffer molecule by accepting hydrogen ions, no major changes in blood pH </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="bohr_shift"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Bohr Shift</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">as CO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> increases, pH lowers and O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> dissociation curve shifts right, saturation of hemoglobin reduced, O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> released from hemoglobin </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">CO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> produced in cellular resp, increased CO<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> concentration reduces saturation of hemoglobin and release O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> to cells </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="ventilation_mechanism"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Ventilation Mechanism</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">involves movement of rib cage and flattening of diaphragm </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">inhalation increases lung volume (decreases pressure), contracts external intercostal muscles, relaxes internal </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">outward & upward movement of ribs increases thorax cavity volume </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">muscles in diaphragm contract, flatten its dome shape </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">exhalation passive, brought by elasticity of tissues; internal intercostal muscles can force ribs down & abs push diaphragm up </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="lung_cancer___asthma_and_effects_on_gas"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Lung Cancer & Asthma and Effects on Gas Exchange System</B></I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="lung_cancer"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Lung Cancer</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">causes: smoking responsible for 83% of lung cancer deaths; passive smoking increases risks </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">effects: persistent coughing, coughing up mucus/blood </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">recurring pneumonia, smoke irritates air passages, produce more mucus </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">system of cleaning air passages fails, pathogens have easier time getting in </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">particles remain in lungs that could contain carcinogens </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="asthma"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Asthma</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">causes: hereditary, may be triggered by allergens (pollen, house dust mites, certain foods, etc.) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">effects: inflammation & constriction of bronchial tubes, leads to wheezing, coughing and resp troubles </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="mouth_to_mouth_resuscitation"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">used to ventilate lungs of person not breathing </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">expired air still has 16% O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT>, enough for inactive person to obtain required amount </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the rest of this section is from swimming lessons/lifesaving stuffs…rescue breathing, CPR, etc. </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="problem_of_gas_exchange_at_high"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Problem of Gas Exchange at High Altitudes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pressure is less, partial pressure of O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> is less; more difficult for body to take in O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">can suffer from mountain sickness (fatigue, nausea, breathlessness, headaches) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">solved in a few days, kidney releases alkaline urine, pulmonary ventilation increases </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">bone marrow produces more erythrocytes for O<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> transport </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">people that live up there have greater lung surface and larger vital capacity </div> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>