Genetics Outline 2

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=90 BGCOLOR="#006699" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="02c285a1erlcgo.png"> <div> <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#FFCC66" FACE="Arial" ><B>Mr. Manning's Life Science Class</B></FONT><B>     |     </B><A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mr. Mannings Life Science Class"><B>home</B></A></div> <div>                                                   </div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=210 BGCOLOR="#FFCC66" TEXT="#080000" background="02ad2c00dkelyh.png"> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#topic___genetics" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Topic - Genetics</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#meiosis" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Meiosis</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#homologous_chromosomes" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Homologous Chromosomes</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#phases_of_meiosis" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Phases of Meiosis</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#prophase_i_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Prophase I </A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#metaphase_i_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Metaphase I </A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#anaphase_i_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Anaphase I </A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#telophase_i" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Telophase I</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#prophase_ii" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Prophase II</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#metaphase_ii_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Metaphase II </A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#anaphase_ii_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Anaphase II </A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#telophase_ii_" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Telophase II </A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#crossing_over" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Crossing-over</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#chiasma" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Chiasma</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#genetic_variety" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Genetic Variety</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#recombination" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Recombination</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#mendel_s_law" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Mendel’s Law</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#mendel_s_laws_and_meiosis" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Mendel’s Laws and Meiosis</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#dihybrid_crosses" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Dihybrid Crosses</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#calculatepredict_genotypes_and" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Calculate/Predict Genotypes and</A> Phenotypes</div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#identify_recombinants" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Identify Recombinants</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#autosomal_gene_linkage_and_gene_mapping" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Autosomal Gene Linkage and Gene Mapping</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#autosomes_vs__sex_chromosomes" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Autosomes vs. Sex Chromosomes</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#exchange_of_alleles" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Exchange of Alleles</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#linkage_group" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Linkage Group</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#example_of_linked_genes" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Example of Linked Genes</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#determine_the_recombinants_in_linked" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Determine the Recombinants in Linked</A> Gene Crosses</div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#cross_over_value" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Cross-Over Value</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#centimorgan" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Centimorgan</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#statistical_analysis" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Statistical Analysis</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#chi_squared_test" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Chi-Squared Test</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#polygenic_inheritance" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Polygenic Inheritance</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#definition" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Definition</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#continuous_variation" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Continuous Variation</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#dihybrid_crosses_1" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Dihybrid Crosses.1</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#applications_of_genetics_to_agriculture" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Applications of Genetics to Agriculture</A> and Horticulture</div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#inbreeding" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Inbreeding</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#outbreeding" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Outbreeding</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#interspecific_hybridization" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Interspecific Hybridization</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#polyploidy" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Polyploidy</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#f1_hybrid_vigour" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">F1 Hybrid Vigour</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#examples" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Examples</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#examples_of_transgenic_techniques" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Examples of Transgenic Techniques</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#ethical_problems" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Ethical problems</A></div> <div> <A HREF="id132_m.htm#biodiversity" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Genetics Outline 2">Biodiversity</A></div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=390 width="100%" BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <I>Genetics Outline 2</I></div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="topic___genetics"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Topic - Genetics</B></I></div> <div> <I>10.1 </I><I> <A NAME="meiosis"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I><B>Meiosis</B></I></div> <div> 10.1.1  <A NAME="homologous_chromosomes"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Homologous Chromosomes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">chromosomes w/same gene locii in same sequence </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">capable of pairing up to form bivalents during meiosis (first phase) </div> <div> 10.1.2  <A NAME="phases_of_meiosis"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Phases of Meiosis</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">exact same as from section 3.3 but reproduced here </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">just like in Mitosis, most action happens in prophase </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="prophase_i_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Prophase I </B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">nuclear membrane disintegrates, etc. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">main thing is that homologous chromosomes line up and come together </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">homologous chromosomes: 2 pairs of sister chromatids, not identical but similar </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">called tetrad, when joined in tetrad get crossing over (chiasmata/synapsis) </div> <div>  <A NAME="metaphase_i_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Metaphase I </B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">nothing splits, but homologous pairs are split and sent to separate ends </div> <div>  <A NAME="anaphase_i_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Anaphase I </B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">homologous chromosomes sent to separate ends, begin cytokinesis </div> <div>  <A NAME="telophase_i"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Telophase I</B></I> </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get two new cells, homologous chromosomes in own cell </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="prophase_ii"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Prophase II</B></I> </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">break down nuclear envelope, get replication of chromosomes (2n) </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="metaphase_ii_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Metaphase II </B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">all genetic info is lined up on metaphase plate in random order </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="anaphase_ii_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Anaphase II </B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get actual split of sister chromatids, chromosomes go to either end of cell </div> <div> <I><B> <A NAME="telophase_ii_"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B></I><I><B>Telophase II </B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get reformation of nuclear envelope </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">have 4 new cells (not identical to one another) w/n chromosomes </div> <div> 10.1.3  <A NAME="crossing_over"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Crossing-over</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">very important in variation </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">new combinations of genes are formed through this </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">synapsis occurs in Prophase I, homologous chromosomes are close together </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">this is when two nonsister chromatids overlap, break at chiasmata and re-attach to other chromatid </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the new combinations are called recombinants </div> <div> 10.1.4  <A NAME="chiasma"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Chiasma</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">points where homologous chromosomes remain in contact as chromatids move apart during Prophase I </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">cross-shaped structure formed by crossing over between chromosomes or two chromatids </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">have exchanged genetic material through crossing-over </div> <div> 10.1.5  <A NAME="genetic_variety"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Genetic Variety</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">meiosis results in infinite genetic variety in gametes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get this through crossing-over in Prophase I and independent assortment in Metaphase I </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">results in about 63 trillion combinations for humans (8 million x 8 million = sperm x egg) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">number of different gametes produced is 2<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><I>n</I></FONT> where <I>n</I> is haploid number </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get 8 million from each gamete cuz 2<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >23</FONT> (23 pairs of homologous chromosomes) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">also added to this variety is crossing-over </div> <div> 10.1.6  <A NAME="recombination"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Recombination</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">reassortment of genes into different combinations from parents </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">production of offspring w/new combinations of traits inherited from 2 parents </div> <div> 10.1.7  <A NAME="mendel_s_law"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Mendel’s Law</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">2nd law: Law of Independent Assortment </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">any one of a pair of characteristics may combine w/either one of another pair </div> <div> 10.1.8  <A NAME="mendel_s_laws_and_meiosis"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Mendel’s Laws and Meiosis</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Mendel’s 2<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >nd</FONT> law applies to traits carried on different chromosomes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">in meiosis, Metaphase I to be exact, any combination of chromosomes is possible </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">therefore, any one of a pair of characteristics may combine w/either one of another pair </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">also, 1<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >st</FONT> law applies (law of segregation) cuz in meiosis sort alleles into separate gametes </div> <div> <I>10.2 </I><I> <A NAME="dihybrid_crosses"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I><B>Dihybrid Crosses</B></I></div> <div> 10.2.1  <A NAME="calculatepredict_genotypes_and"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Calculate/Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get something like AaBb vs. AaBb </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">that’s the P groups (parents) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">then have to determine F<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >1</FONT> genotypes and mention ratios of phenotypes (9:3:3:1) </div> <div> 10.2.2 <A NAME="identify_recombinants"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B> Identify Recombinants</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">recombination: reassortment of genes or characteristics into different combinations from parents </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">mostly applies to linked genes, but also to non-linked </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">example: cross tall white (Ttrr) w/short red (ttRr) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">F<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >1</FONT> is: tall white (Ttrr), short red (ttRr), tall red (TtRr) and short white (ttrr) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">tall red and short white are recombinants </div> <div> <I>10.3 </I><I> <A NAME="autosomal_gene_linkage_and_gene_mapping"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I><B>Autosomal Gene Linkage and Gene Mapping</B></I></div> <div> 10.3.1  <A NAME="autosomes_vs__sex_chromosomes"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Autosomes vs. Sex Chromosomes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">autosomes: all chromosomes that aren’t sex chromosomes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">sex chromosomes: chromosomes that help determine sex of individual </div> <div> 10.3.2  <A NAME="exchange_of_alleles"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Exchange of Alleles</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">crossing-over in Prophase I between non-sister chromatids of homologous pairs can result in variation and exchange of alleles </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">pretty much identical to that said in 10.1.3 </div> <div> 10.3.3  <A NAME="linkage_group"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Linkage Group</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">group of genes whose locii are on same chromosome </div> <div> 10.3.4  <A NAME="example_of_linked_genes"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Example of Linked Genes</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Drosophila: possess 8 chromosomes and easy to breed </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">result in offspring didn’t always correspond to predicted values </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">only reason is that the two traits tested for are found on same chromosome, thus linked </div> <div> 10.3.5  <A NAME="determine_the_recombinants_in_linked"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Determine the Recombinants in Linked Gene Crosses</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">read up from 10.2.2 </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">w/respect to linked genes, the recombinants are the combinations of genes which parent’s didn’t possess </div> <div> 10.3.6  <A NAME="cross_over_value"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Cross-Over Value</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">there will always be 1 copy of parental cuz only 1 chromatid does crossing over </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">when show one chromosome crossing, the other one isn’t </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">occurrence of crossing-over is proportional to distance between linked genes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">also proportional to number of recmbinants produced </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the close the traits are, the less chance they have for crossing-over & changing material </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the further they are, the more chance they have of crossing-over & changing material </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">if linked traits, then get about even numbers in ratios of offspring (1:1 and 1:1) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">cross-over value (COV) = number of recombinants / total offspring x100 </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">genetic map is linear sequence of genes along chromosome </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">not an accurate picture of chromosome, but can give general idea </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">max recombination frequency is 50% </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">this means that the genes are so far apart on chromosome that crossing-over occurs so frequently it’s as if they were on different chromosomes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">but they’re still linked! </div> <div> 10.3.7  <A NAME="centimorgan"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Centimorgan</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">units used to express distance between 2 genes on the same chromosome </div> <div> <I>10.4 </I><I> <A NAME="statistical_analysis"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I><B>Statistical Analysis</B></I></div> <div> 10.4.1  <A NAME="chi_squared_test"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Chi-Squared Test</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">tells you when the value is ok and when it’s extraneous </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">useful in testing a hypothesis, compare actual (observed) results to expected results </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">X<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> = S (observed – expected)<FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" >2</FONT> / expected </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">NULL hypothesis: any deviation from the expected is due to chance </div> <div> <I>10.5 </I><I> <A NAME="polygenic_inheritance"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I><B>Polygenic Inheritance</B></I></div> <div> 10.5.1  <A NAME="definition"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Definition</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">polygenic: many genes affecting a particular trait </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">an additive effect of 2 or more genes on the phenotype (skin colour in humans) </div> <div> 10.5.2  <A NAME="continuous_variation"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Continuous Variation</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">presence of each gene results in mixed output </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">get whole range of possibilities </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">look at skin colour: AABBCC = very dark skin, aabbcc = very light skin </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">any other combination of the 3 genes (this is simplified of course) result in different variations </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">if graph phenotypes, get bell-shaped curve, this demonstrates continuous variation </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">there are no breaks, get continuous shape </div> <div> 10.5.3  <A NAME="dihybrid_crosses_1"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Dihybrid Crosses</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">epistasis: standing on top of </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">genes whose presence causes other genes to be effective/turned on (control other genes) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">in order for gene A or a to work, gene B must be present </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">therefore get different ratio in offspring production </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">it means they’re unlinked genes, and that epistasis has occurred </div> <div> <I>10.6 </I><I> <A NAME="applications_of_genetics_to_agriculture"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></I><I><B>Applications of Genetics to Agriculture and Horticulture</B></I></div> <div> 10.6.1  <A NAME="inbreeding"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Inbreeding</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">mating between closely related individuals </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">most extreme case is self-fertilization in plants </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">increase homozygous recessive traits’ occurrence in offspring when inbreed </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">don’t get variations </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">in human populations get same effect on offspring </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">have greater chance of getting recessive genes, but not always the case </div> <div> 10.6.2  <A NAME="outbreeding"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Outbreeding</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">opposite of inbreeding, mating between non-related individuals </div> <div> 10.6.3  <A NAME="interspecific_hybridization"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Interspecific Hybridization</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">mating between different species </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">produce offspring, but offspring is infertile </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">horse + donkey = mule (sterile) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">species: 2 animals are of same species if can mate and produce viable offspring </div> <div> 10.6.4  <A NAME="polyploidy"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Polyploidy</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">extra sets of chromosomes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">3n = triploidy; 4n = tetraploidy </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">happens in plants, growing wheat, rice, rye, barley, maize, etc. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">non-disjunction occurs </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">tends to produce hardy/strong individuals </div> <div> 10.6.5  <A NAME="f1_hybrid_vigour"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>F</B></I><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><I><B>1</B></I></FONT><I><B> Hybrid Vigour</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">cross-bredding between 2 different varieties </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">offspring more vigourous than parentals </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">elminates homozygous recessive especially if trait is deleterious (bad, detrimental) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">heterozygous advantage </div> <div> 10.6.6  <A NAME="examples"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Examples</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">inbreeding: self-fertilization in plants </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">used in breeding sheep, cattle and pigs to strengthen desirable characteristics </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">outbreeding: done between breeding lines w/in species or between species </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">w/in species: short-horned cattle vs. Black Angus cattle = tasty beef w/rapid growth </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">between species: horse + donkey = mule (sterile), stronger and more resistant to disease </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">also have Macoun apple + crab apple = Liberty apple </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">similar in taste to Macoun but more resistant to disease </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">polyploidy: strawberries, Daylilies, Freesias, many plants bought for flowers </div> <div> 10.6.7 3  <A NAME="examples_of_transgenic_techniques"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Examples of Transgenic Techniques</B></I></div> <div> insulin gene: humans -> bacteria </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">now make insulin for nothing cuz take out gene </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">put gene into bacteria’s DNA and BLAMMO! </div> <div> frost resistance: flounder -> tomatoes </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">took gene from fish, put it into tomatoes </div> <div> blood clotting (factor IX): humans -> sheep (milk) </div> <div> increases production </div> <div> first ever example </div> <div> firefly gene (light): firefly -> tobacco plant </div> <div> 10.6.8  <A NAME="ethical_problems"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Ethical problems</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">biodiversity, just cuz we can should we? </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">do we have the right? </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">creation of new species/improve on species? do we have right? </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">humans? or not? human worth? unnatural? </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">super plants? resistant to herbicides/pesticides </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">competing w/other species? difficult to control </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">the bacteria can become pathogenic (super bacteria) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">who profits from this? -> Monsanto pattented Canola </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">patents on transgenic organisms </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">biological warfare – newly engineered bacteria </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">DNA in foods (Genetically Modified Organisms) </div> <div> 10.6.9  <A NAME="biodiversity"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><I><B>Biodiversity</B></I></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">growing human population needs it, now we rely on 3 plants (rice, corn, wheat) </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">could get problem like potato famine in Ireland </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">research being done to see if can use other wild plants to become new crop plants </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.png" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">also to improve resistance to insects/disease </div> <bR> </td> 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